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Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.[317] Rugby union is considered the national sport[318] and attracts the most spectators.[319] Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while soccer is top among young people.[319] Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late xxxxs and the early xxxxs played an early role in instilling a national identity.[320] Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the "Rugby, Racing and Beer" culture during the xxxxs.[321] Maori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Maori challenge, before international matches.[322]New Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union, netball, cricket, rugby league, and softball and has traditionally done well in triathlons, rowing, yachting and cycling. The country has ranked highly on a medals-to-population ratio at recent Olympic Games.[319][323][324] The All Blacks, the national men's rugby union team, are the most successful in the history of international rugby[325] and the reigning World Cup champions.[326] New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism[327] and strong mountaineering tradition.[328] Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports and surfing are also popular.[329] The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has increased in popularity and is now an international sport involving teams from all over the Pacific.[330]William Webb Ellis is often credited with the innovation of running with the ball in hand in xxxx at Rugby School when he allegedly caught the ball while playing football and ran towards the opposition goal. However, the evidence for the story is doubtful. In xxxx, the first football laws were written by Rugby School pupils; other significant events in the early development of rugby include the Blackheath Club's decision to leave the Football Association in xxxx and the split between rugby union and rugby league in xxxx. Historically an amateur sport, in xxxx the International Rugby Board (IRB) removed restrictions on payments to players, making the game openly professional at the highest level for the first time.The IRB has been the governing body for rugby union since its formation in xxxx. Rugby union spread from the Home Nations of Great Britain and Ireland, and was absorbed by many of the countries associated with the British Empire. Early exponents of the sport included Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Countries that have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport include Fiji, Georgia, Madagascar,[3] New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga and Wales. Rugby union is played in over 100 countries across six continents and as of 27 November xxxx, the IRB has 100 full members and 18 associate members.The Rugby World Cup, first held in xxxx, takes place every four years with the winner of the tournament receiving the Webb Ellis Cup. The Six Nations Championship in Europe and The Rugby Championship in the Southern Hemisphere (the latter replacing the Tri Nations) are major international competitions held annually.Major domestic competitions include the English Premiership in England, Top 14 in France, the Currie Cup in South Africa, and the ITM Cup in New Zealand. Other transnational competitions include the Pro 12, involving Irish, Italian, Scottish and Welsh teams; the Heineken Cup, involving the top European teams from their respective domestic competitions; and Super Rugby, involving Australian, New Zealand and South African teams.The origin of rugby football is reputed to be an incident during a game of English school football at Rugby School in xxxx when William Webb Ellis is said to have picked up the ball and run with it.[4] Although the evidence for the story is doubtful, it was immortalised at the school with a plaque unveiled in xxxx.[5][6] Despite the doubtful evidence, the Rugby World Cup trophy is named after Webb Ellis. Rugby football stems from the form of game played at Rugby School, which former pupils then introduced to their university. Old Rugbeian Albert Pell, a student at Cambridge, is credited with having formed the first "football" team.[7] During this early period different schools used different rules, with former pupils from Rugby and Eton attempting to carry their preferred rules through to their universities.[8]A significant event in the early development of rugby football was the production of the first written laws of the game at Rugby School in xxxx,[9] which was followed by the 'Cambridge Rules' drawn up in xxxx.[10] Other important events include the Blackheath Club's decision to leave the Football Association in xxxx[11][12] and the formation of the Rugby Football Union in xxxx.[11] The code was originally known as "rugby football"; it was not until after the schism in England in xxxx, which resulted in the separate code of rugby league, that the sport took on the name "rugby union" to differentiate it from the league game.[13] Despite the sport's full name of rugby union, it is known simply as rugby throughout most of the world.[14][15]The first rugby football international was played on 27 March xxxx between England and Scotland.[11] By xxxx both Ireland and Wales had representative teams, and in xxxx the first international competition, the Home Nations Championship had begun. xxxx is also the year of the first rugby sevens tournament, the Melrose Sevens,[16] which is still held annually. Five years later two important overseas tours took place: a British Isles team visited Australia and New Zealand?although a private venture, it laid the foundations for future British and Irish Lions tours;[17] and the xxxx?89 New Zealand Native football team brought the first overseas team to British spectators.[18]Between xxxx and xxxx, all three major Southern Hemisphere rugby countries sent their first touring teams to the Northern Hemisphere: New Zealand in xxxx, followed by South Africa in xxxx and Australia in xxxx. All three teams brought new styles of play, fitness levels and tactics,[19] and were far more successful than critics had expected.[20] The New Zealand xxxx touring team performed a haka before each match, leading Welsh Rugby Union administrator Tom Williams to suggest that Wales player Teddy Morgan lead the crowd in singing the Welsh National Anthem, Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, as a response. After Morgan began singing, the crowd joined in: the first time a national anthem was sung at the start of a sporting event.[21] In xxxx France played England in its first international match.[19]No international rugby games and union-sponsored club matches were played during the First World War, but competitions continued through service teams such as the New Zealand Army team.[22] During the Second World War no international matches were played by most countries, though Italy, Germany and Romania played a limited number of games,[23][24][25] and Cambridge and Oxford continued their annual University Match.[26]Rugby union was included as an event in the Olympic Games four times during the early 20th century. In xxxx the first officially sanctioned international sevens tournament took place at Murrayfield, one of Scotland's biggest stadiums, as part of the Scottish Rugby Union centenary celebrations.[27] In xxxx the first Rugby World Cup was held in Australia and New Zealand, and the inaugural winners were New Zealand. The first World Cup Sevens tournament was held at Murrayfield in xxxx. Rugby Sevens was introduced into the Commonwealth Games in xxxx and is due to be added to the Olympic Games by xxxx.[28]Rugby union was an amateur sport until the IRB declared the game "open" in xxxx, removing restrictions on payments to players.[29][30] However, the pre-xxxx period of rugby union was marked by frequent accusations of "shamateurism",[31] including an investigation in Britain by a House of Commons Select committee.[32][33] Following the introduction of professionalism trans-national club competitions were started, with the Heineken Cup in the Northern Hemisphere and Super Rugby in the Southern Hemisphere.[34][35] The Tri-nations, an annual international tournament involving Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, kicked off in xxxx.[35]Each team starts the match with 15 players on the field and seven substitutes.[36] Players in a team are divided into eight forwards (two more than in rugby league) and seven backs.[37]The main responsibilities of the forward players are to gain and retain possession of the ball.[38] Players in these positions are generally bigger and stronger and take part in the scrum and line-out.[38] The forwards are often collectively referred to as the 'pack', especially when in the scrum formation.[39] The front row consists of three players, two props; the loosehead prop and the tighthead prop, and the hooker. The role of the two props are to support the hooker during scrums, to provide support for the jumpers during line-outs and to provide strength and power in rucks and mauls. The third position in the front row is the hooker. The hooker is a key position in attacking and defensive play and is responsible for winning the ball in the scrum. Hookers normally throw the ball in at line-outs.[37][40] The second row consists of two locks or lock forwards. Locks are usually the tallest players in the team, and specialise as line-out jumpers.[37] The main role of the lock in line-outs is to make a standing jump, often supported by the other forwards, to either collect the thrown ball or ensure the ball comes down on their side. Locks also have an important role in the scrum, binding directly behind the three front row players and providing forward drive.[37] The back row, not to be confused with ?Backs?, is the third and final row of the forward positions, they are often referred to as the loose forwards.[39] The three positions in the back row are made up of two flankers and the number 8. The two flanker positions, called the blindside flanker and openside flanker, are the final row in the scrum. They are usually the most mobile forwards in the game. Their main role is to win possession through 'turn overs'.[37] The number 8 packs down between the two locks at the back of the scrum. His role in the scrum is to control the ball after it has been heeled back from the front of the pack and the position provides a link between the forwards and backs during attacking phases.[41]The backs' role is to create and convert point-scoring opportunities. They are generally smaller, faster and more agile than the forwards.[38] Another distinction between the backs and the forwards is that the backs are expected to have superior kicking skills, especially the fly-half and full-back.[38] The half-backs consist of two positions, the scrum-half and the fly-half. The fly-half is crucial to a team's game plan, orchestrating the teams performance.[41] They are usually the first to receive the ball from the scrum-half following a breakdown, lineout or scrum and need to be decisive with what actions to take and be effective at communicating with the outside backs.[41] Many fly-halfs are also their team's goal kickers. The scrum-half is the link between the forwards and the backs.[41] They receive the ball from the lineout and remove the ball from the back of the scrum, usually passing it to the fly-half.[42] They also feed the scrum and sometimes have to act as a fourth loose forward.[43] There are four three quarter positions, the inside centre, outside centre and left and right wings. The centres will attempt to tackle attacking players; whilst in attack they should employ speed and strength to breach opposition defences.[41] The wings are generally positioned on the outside of the backline. Their primary function is to finish off moves and score tries.[44] Wings are usually the fastest players in the team and are either elusive runners, or more commonly in the modern era, big, strong and able to break tackles.[45] The fullback normally positions himself several metres behind the back line. He fields any opposition kicks and is often the last line of defence should an opponent break through the back line.[41] Two of the most important attributes of a good fullback are dependable catching skills and a good kicking game.[46]Rugby union is played between two teams ? the one that scores more points wins the game. Points can be scored in several ways: a try, scored by grounding the ball in the in-goal area (between the goal line and the dead ball line), is worth 5 points and a subsequent conversion kick scores 2 points; a successful penalty kick or a drop goal each score 3 points.[47] The values of each of these scoring methods have been changed over the years.[48]The field of play on a rugby pitch is as near as possible to a maximum of 144 metres (157 yd) long by 70 metres (77 yd) wide.[49] In actual gameplay there should be a maximum of 100 metres (109 yd) between the two try-lines, with anywhere between 10 and 22 metres behind each try line to serve as the in-goal area.[49] There are several lines crossing it, notably the half way line and the "twenty two", which is 22 metres (24 yd) from the goal line.[49]Rugby goalposts are H-shaped, and consist of two poles, 5.6 metres (6.1 yd) apart, connected by a horizontal crossbar 3 metres (3.3 yd) above the ground.[51] The original pitch dimensions were in imperial units, but have since been converted to the metric system.[52][53]Stricter rules apply to the pitch size for matches between national representative teams. The same maximums apply in this case, but the distance between the two try-lines must also be at least 94 metres (103 yd) and the pitch must be at least 68 metres (74 yd) wide.[50]At the beginning of the game, the captains and the referee toss a coin to decide which team will kick off first. Play then starts with a drop kick, with the players chasing the ball into the opposition's territory, and the other side trying to retrieve the ball and advance it. If the player with the ball is tackled, frequently a ruck will result.[54]Games are divided into 40-minute halves, with a break in the middle.[55] The sides exchange ends of the field after the half-time break.[55] Stoppages for injury or to allow the referee to take disciplinary action do not count as part of the playing time, so that the elapsed time is usually longer than 80 minutes.[55] The referee is responsible for keeping time, even when?as in many professional tournaments?he is assisted by an official time-keeper.[55] If time expires while the ball is in play, the game continues until the ball is "dead", and only then will the referee blow the whistle to signal half-time or full-time; but if the referee awards a penalty or free-kick, the game continues.[56]In the knockout stages of rugby competitions, most notably the Rugby World Cup, two extra time periods of 10 minutes periods are played (with an interval of 5 minutes in between) if the game is tied after full-time. If scores are level after 100 minutes then the rules call for 20 minutes of sudden-death extra time to be played. If the sudden-death extra time period results in no scoring a kicking competition is used to determine the winner. However, no match in the history of the Rugby World Cup has ever gone past 100 minutes into a sudden-death extra time period.[57]Forward passing (throwing the ball ahead to another player) is not allowed; the ball can be passed laterally or backwards.[58] The ball tends to be moved forward in three ways ? by kicking, by a player running with it or within a scrum or maul. Only the player with the ball may be tackled or rucked. When a ball is knocked forward by a player with his/her arms, a "knock-on" is committed, and play is restarted with a scrum.[58]Any player may kick the ball forward in an attempt to gain territory. When a player anywhere in the playing area kicks indirectly into touch so that the ball first bounces in the field of play the throw-in is taken where the ball went into touch.[58] If the player kicks directly into touch (i.e. without bouncing in-field first) from within their own 22-metre line the lineout is taken by the opposition where the ball went into touch, but if the ball is kicked into touch directly by a player outside the 22-metre line the lineout is taken level to where the kick was taken.[59]The aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball, either by bringing them to ground (a tackle, which is frequently followed by a ruck), or by contesting for possession with the ball-carrier on their feet (a maul). Such a circumstance is called a breakdown and each is governed by a specific law.A player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by holding them while bringing them to ground. Tacklers cannot tackle above the shoulder (the neck and head are out of bounds),[60] and the tackler has to attempt to wrap their arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle. It is illegal to push, shoulder-charge, or to trip a player using feet or legs, but hands may be used (this being referred to as a tap-tackle or ankle-tap).[61][62]Mauls occur after a player with the ball has come into contact with an opponent but the handler remains on his feet; once any combination of at least three players have bound themselves a maul has been set.[39] A ruck is similar to the maul, but in this case the ball has gone to ground with at least three attacking players binding themselves on the ground in an attempt to secure the ball.[39]When the ball leaves the side of the field, a line-out is awarded against the team which last touched the ball.[63] Forward players from each team line up a metre apart, perpendicular to the touchline and between 5 m and 15 m from the touchline.[63] The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player (usually the hooker) from the team that did not play the ball into touch.[63] The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty, in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in.[63]Both sides compete for the ball and players may lift their teammates.[64] A jumping player cannot be tackled until they stand and only shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed; deliberate infringement of this law is dangerous play, and results in a penalty kick.[65]A scrum is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after a minor infringement.[66] It is awarded when the ball has been knocked or passed forward, if a player takes the ball over his own try line and puts the ball down, when a player is accidentally offside or when the ball is trapped in a ruck or maul with no realistic chance of being retrieved. A team may also opt for a scrum if awarded a penalty.[66]A scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows.[66] The front row consists of the two props (loosehead and tighthead) either side of the hooker.[66] The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers. Behind the second row is the number 8. This formation is known as the 3?4?1 formation.[67] Once a scrum is formed the scrum-half from the team awarded the feed rolls the ball into the gap between the two front-rows known as the tunnel.[66] The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet, while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession.[66] The side that wins possession transfers the ball to the back of the scrum, where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum-half.[66]There are three match officials: a referee, and two assistant referees.[68] The latter, formerly known as touch judges, had the primary function of indicating when the ball had gone "touch"; their role has been expanded and they are now expected to assist the referee in a number of areas, such as watching for foul play and checking off-side lines.[68] In addition, for matches in high level competitions, there is often a television match official (TMO; popularly called the "video referee"), to assist with certain decisions, linked up to the referee by radio.[69] The referees have a system of hand signals to indicate their decisions.[70]Common offences include tackling above the shoulders, collapsing a scrum, ruck or maul, not releasing the ball when on the ground, or being off-side.[71] The non-offending team has a number of options when awarded a penalty: a "tap" kick, when the ball is kicked a very short distance from hand, allowing the kicker to regather the ball and run with it; a punt, when the ball is kicked a long distance from hand, for field position; a place-kick, when the kicker will attempt to score a goal; or a scrum.[71] Players may be sent off (signalled by a red card) or temporarily suspended ("sin-binned") for ten minutes (yellow card) for foul play or repeated infringements, and may not be replaced.[71]Occasionally, infringements are not caught by the referee during the match and these may be "cited" by the citing commissioner after the match and have punishments (usually suspension for a number of weeks) imposed on the infringing player.[72]During the match, players may be replaced (for injury) or substituted (for tactical reasons).[36] A player who has been replaced may not rejoin play unless he was temporarily replaced to have bleeding controlled; a player who has been substituted may return temporarily, to replace a player who has a blood injury, or permanently, if he is replacing a front-row forward.[36] In international matches, up to seven replacements are allowed; in domestic or cross-border tournaments, at the discretion of the responsible national union(s), the number may be increased to eight, of whom three must be sufficiently trained and experienced to provide cover for the three front row positions.[73]The most basic items of equipment for a game of rugby union are the ball itself, a rugby shirt (also known as a "jersey"), rugby shorts, socks and boots. The rugby ball is oval in shape, (technically a prolate spheroid), and is made up of four panels.[74] The ball was historically made of leather, but in the modern era most games use a ball made from a synthetic material. The IRB lays out specific dimensions for the ball, 280-300mm in length, 740-770mm in circumference of length and 580-620mm in circumference of width.[74] Rugby boots have soles with studs to allow grip on the turf of the pitch. The studs may be either metal or plastic but must not have any sharp edges or ridges.[75]Protective equipment is optional and strictly regulated. The most common items are mouthguards, which are worn by almost all players, and are compulsory in some rugby-playing nations.[76] Other protective items that are permitted include a head gear; thin (not more than 10 mm thick), non-rigid shoulder pads, and shin guards; which are worn underneath socks.[77] Bandages or tape can be worn to support or protect injuries; some players wear tape around the head to protect the ears in scrums and rucks. Female players may also wear chest pads.[77] Although not worn for protection, some types of fingerless mitts are allowed to aid grip.[77]The international governing body of rugby union (and associated games such as sevens) is the International Rugby Board (IRB).[79] The IRB headquarters are in Dublin, Ireland.[79] The IRB, founded in xxxx, governs the sport worldwide and publishes the game's laws and rankings.[79] As of November xxxx the IRB recorded 118 unions in its membership, 100 full members and 18 associate member countries.[80] According to the IRB, rugby union is played by men and women in over 100 countries.[79] The IRB controls the Rugby World Cup,[79] the Women's Rugby World Cup,[81] Rugby World Cup Sevens,[82] IRB Sevens World Series,[83] Junior World Championship,[84] Junior World Trophy,[85] Nations Cup[86] and the Pacific Nations Cup.[87] The IRB holds votes to decide where each of these events are be held, except in the case of the Sevens World Series for which the IRB contracts with several national unions to hold individual events.SANZAR (South Africa, New Zealand and Australia Rugby) is a joint venture of the South African Rugby Union, the New Zealand Rugby Union and the Australian Rugby Union that operates Super Rugby and The Rugby Championship (formerly the Tri Nations before the entry of Argentina).[94] Although the Argentine Rugby Union initially has no representation on the SANZAR board, it has been granted input into the organisation's issues, especially with regard to The Rugby Championship.[95]National unions oversee rugby union within individual countries and are affiliated to the IRB. The IRB Council has 26 seats. Each of the eight foundation unions ? Scotland, Ireland, Wales, England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and France ? have two seats, and Argentina, Canada, Italy, Japan and the six regional associations each have one seat.[79]The spread of rugby union in Europe has been sporadic. Historically, due to the lack of international games between the British and Irish home teams, who were more interested in facing the Southern Hemisphere giants of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the rest of Europe were forced to create a 'second tier' of international rugby matches. As a mainland country and during a period when they had been isolated by the British and Irish Unions, France became the only European team from the top tier to regularly play the other European countries; mainly Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, Romania, Poland, Italy and Czechoslovakia.[91][111] In xxxx, instigated by the French Rugby Federation, FIRA (Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur) was formed to organise rugby union outside the authority of the IRB.[91] The founding members were Italy, Romania, Netherlands, Portugal, Czechoslovakia, and Sweden. Other European rugby playing nations of note include Russia, whose first officially recorded match is marked by an encounter between Dynamo Moscow and the Moscow Institute of Physical Education in xxxx.[112] Rugby union in Portugal also took hold between the First and Second World Wars, with a Portuguese National XV set up in xxxx and an official championship started in xxxx.[113]
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